Chinese philosophy after the Western Han Dynasty can be viewed as a history of formatting and anti-formatting of thought: This historical process is categorized into two major cycles. The first cycle spans from the Western Han Dynasty through the Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, culminating in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The second cycle begins in the Song Dynasty and continues to the present day.

Within each cycle, there are distinct phases: establishment, vulgarization, rebellion, and mutation: During the establishment phase, a new philosophical system is formed and gains prominence. The vulgarization phase witnesses the simplification and distortion of the philosophical system as it becomes intertwined with political power. The rebellion phase arises as individuals and movements challenge the prevailing orthodoxy and seek alternative perspectives. Finally, the mutation phase marks a period of adaptation and transformation, often resulting in the integration of diverse philosophical strands.

The reign of Emperor Wu of Han (141-87 BCE) marked a significant shift in Chinese intellectual history with the rise of Confucianism: Prior to Emperor Wu, philosophies like Legalism and Huang-Lao (a school of thought emphasizing inaction and natural order) were influential during the early Han Dynasty. However, these philosophies did not provide a strong theoretical basis for the legitimacy of the imperial rule of the Liu family. The young Emperor Wu, lacking the military achievements of his predecessors, needed a new ideology to solidify his authority and justify the emperor's position as divinely ordained. Confucianism, with its emphasis on hierarchy, social order, and the Mandate of Heaven, provided the ideological framework that Emperor Wu sought.

The debate between "Old Text" and "New Text" Confucianism reflects different interpretations and approaches to the Confucian classics: "New Text" Confucianism, favored by Emperor Wu and subsequent Han emperors, relied on texts transmitted in a simplified script and often incorporated elements of Legalism and cosmology. "Old Text" Confucianism, often associated with more literal interpretations of the classics, gained some ground during the reign of Wang Mang (9-23 CE) but faced suppression under later Han emperors. The rivalry between these schools highlights the complex process of interpreting and reinterpreting ancient texts in light of changing political and social circumstances.

The Three Wus and One Zong" represent periods of Buddhist persecution in Chinese history: The sources identify four emperors who are known for their suppression of Buddhism: Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, Emperor Wuzong of the Tang Dynasty, and Emperor Shizong of the Later Zhou Dynasty. The motives behind these persecutions varied, ranging from concerns about Buddhism's growing economic and political influence to perceived threats to traditional Chinese values and social order. However, despite these periods of persecution, Buddhism remained a resilient force in Chinese society and eventually achieved a degree of accommodation with the state and other belief systems.