Rory Stewart explores ideas of what it means to be a hero from the ancient world to the present day. How have these ideas changed? Why do heroes matter? Who are the heroes we need today?

With the help of leading historians, psychologists, philosophers and theologians, he examines how heroism is continually questioned and re-invented in every age, and how these contrasting visions of the hero might speak to us in our own time. What does it mean for our moral life? How should we perceive and pursue human excellence?

In this first episode of the series, Rory explores ideas of the hero from the classical world to the middle ages. To hear more episodes, search "Rory Stewart: The Long History of..." on BBC Sounds.

Presenter: Rory Stewart Producer and sound design: Dan Tierney Editor: Tim Pemberton Commissioning Editor: Dan Clarke

Steve Baker was a pivotal figure in the Brexit turmoil that engulfed the Conservatives. Becoming an MP in 2010 order to help achieve Britain's severance from the European Union, he came to prominence as chair of an influential group of Eurosceptic rebels who helped bring down the prime ministership of Theresa May.

Having lost his seat in the general election of 2024, the former Royal Air Force engineer talks to James Naughtie about how to organise a rebellion, his Christian faith, the state of the Conservative party and the toll political life took on his mental health.

Producer: Leela Padmanabhan

Edinburgh-born former lawyer Sir Malcolm Rifkind was first elected as a Conservative MP in 1974. A former Defence and Foreign Secretary, he served continuously as a minister for 18 years under Margaret Thatcher and John Major.

In conversation with James Naughtie, he looks back on his relationship with the 'Iron Lady', meeting Mikhail Gorbachev, the poll tax controversy, Tory Brexit wars and the personal side of political life.

Producer: Leela Padmanabhan

Elected to parliament in 1987, Diane Abbott was the first black female MP and is known as the 'Mother of the House'. In a conversation with James Naughtie recorded in May 2025, the passionate left-winger reflects on rebellion, her relationship with Jeremy Corbyn, the 2023 controversy that led to her year-long suspension from the Labour party, her experience of sexism and racism and her political longevity.

Producer: Leela Padmanabhan

James Naughtie talks to former US Secretary of State John Kerry about his life and political career.

At his home in Massachusetts, which he represented in the United States Senate for close to 30 years, Kerry discusses his experiences as a naval officer in Vietnam, how he felt the pull of politics, and what he attempted to achieve. Reflecting on the 2004 presidential election campaign, where he was the Democrat nominee against President George W. Bush, Kerry says it was the first 'fake news election'.

In four years as President Obama's Secretary of State, Kerry travelled more than a million miles around the world, and he discusses his experiences negotiating the Iran Nuclear Deal, the decision not to strike Syria, and his friendship with Benjamin Netanhayu.

And on domestic politics, Kerry has some striking advice for his party after losing the 2024 presidential election.

Producer: Giles Edwards

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

To end the series, a counter-factual: what would Britain have been like if, as almost everyone expected, Winston Churchill had won the 1945 general election?

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

We can fix a start date on the postwar period, but what about an end date? Are we still living in the postwar period? And, if not, when did we leave it?

Featuring John Bew, Patricia Clavin, Lucy Delap, David Kynaston, David Reynolds and Robert Saunders.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age. What happened to Winston Churchill in the years after the 1945 general election?

Featuring David Reynolds.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

The Clement Attlee government's efforts to renew the nation after 1945 is sometimes referred to as a New Jerusalem. But that reference to William Blake's poem – with its vision of “pleasant pastures” – is also evidence of a certain nostalgia for an idea of Britain – of England – that’s rooted deep in the country’s past. And it gives voice to a central question faced by the Labour government in 1945: how much of Britain’s past were they willing to jettison in order to build Jerusalem in England’s – Britain’s – green and pleasant land.

Featuring David Kynaston and Robert Saunders.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

Voting took place on Thursday 5th July 1945 – eight weeks after VE Day – and when the polls closed there were no overnight counts, no race to be the first to declare. All around the country ballot boxes were sealed, transported to police stations and town hall basements – and locked away until the votes of servicemen and women overseas were shipped back to their constituencies.

The immediate result of the general election, then, was silence: a three-week hiatus. But it was a natural assumption that Winston Churchill, the war hero, would emerge from that hiatus as the winner. Labour leader Clement Attlee certainly thought so. He had no idea what was coming when the ballot boxes were opened.

Featuring David Kynaston and Robert Saunders.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

During the war, Britain had been bailed out by American largesse. Without America’s help, the nation would be on the brink of bankruptcy. No one’s plans for postwar reconstruction could avoid this fact. That meant, during and after the 1945 election, a great deal was going to depend on the attitude of, and to, the Americans.

Featuring John Bew and David Reynolds.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

Both main parties supported the United Nations, but they disagreed about what that meant.

Featuring Patricia Clavin.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

One of the enduring images of 1945 is of Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt and Josef Stalin sat closely together at the Yalta conference: the three dominant warlords of the age meeting to decide the fate of the world. Five months later, when the Big Three gathered again for another photo call at the end of another conference – this time at Potsdam, near Berlin – everything had changed.

Featuring David Reynolds.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

In January 1940 an organisation called CEMA – the Council for the Encouragement of Music and Art – was founded, initially with money from a charitable trust – money that was soon matched by Treasury funds, at which point, as the economist John Maynard Keynes declared in a broadcast from July 1945, "state patronage of the arts crept in."

Featuring Christopher Frayling.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

The 1945 election was fought and lost over two inter-twined, domestic, concerns: demobilisation and housing. Who would get the troops home quickest -- and who would ensure they had homes to return to?

Featuring historians Lucy Delap, David Kynaston and David Reynolds.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

From different perspectives, both Winston Churchill and Clement Attlee had a long-standing involvement in the question of greater self-government for India. In different ways, for both men it was a defining element of their political lives. And both knew that the issue would have to be confronted when the war was over. And yet India, and questions of Empire more generally, were largely absent from the 1945 election.

Featuring historian Wendy Webster.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

Winston Churchill’s sometimes florid rhetoric was well suited to the microphone age and his wartime radio broadcasts became a new political art form. His deputy within the wartime coalition government, Clement Attlee, couldn’t hope to match him as a broadcaster – and, usually, he didn’t. Except in the case of their first election broadcasts of 1945 which, in the case of Churchill, might be remembered as his greatest gaffe.

Featuring historian Robert Saunders.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed, the postwar years, would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

The war changed many things, and access to healthcare was one of them. The Beveridge Report had proposed free healthcare for all in November 1942, and that vision informed the wartime coalition government’s White Paper of May 1944. Its title? ‘A national health service’. From that point on, the operative question was not whether there would be a future NHS, but what form it should take, its extent, and who should be in control.

Featuring historians Lucy Delap and David Kynaston. With thanks to Joseph Foster.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

Up to this point, manifestos had traditionally been the election address of the party leader. The Conservative leader in 1945 was the towering figure in the nation and it made sense to stick to that formula. In contrast, the Labour manifesto made no mention of the party leader Clement Attlee. It was a completely different kind of document. Largely the work of a young researcher named Michael Young, it moved far beyond the traditional election address towards offering a real prospectus for government. And, uniquely in modern British history, it was a best-seller.

Featuring historians David Kynaston and Robert Saunders.

David Runciman tells the story of the 1945 election and the dawn of a new age.

The 1945 general election was one of the biggest shocks in British parliamentary history: a decisive rejection of Winston Churchill and his leadership. The election of Clement Attlee's Labour government in a landslide marked a break with the past and signalled a strong desire on the part of the British people for something new. But it was also a product of Britain's wartime experiences and revealed the many ways in which the country had already changed.

The years that followed -- the postwar years -- would bring about bold and radical reform, the building of a new nation, a 'New Jerusalem'. The Britain of the National Health Service and the welfare state, of nationalised industry and the so-called 'postwar consensus' -- all were ushered into place with this election. This is the Britain that most have us have grown up in and which still shapes an idea of who we think we are.

After a war which dramatically changed the working lives of women, the 1945 election became, in some ways, the first modern election. Women represented a majority of the electorate and, as far as the party manifestos were concerned, did not form a separate constituency. Women campaigned alongside men on the airwaves and a record number of female MPs were elected.

Featuring historian Lucy Delap.